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Australia - Oceania :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges Print
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Australia - Oceania :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges Print
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Australia - Oceania :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges Print
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Australia - Oceania :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
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Baker Island as seen from the international space station orbiting at a height of about 350 km. Photo courtesy of NASA.
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2 / 9
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Howland Island is an uninhabited coral island located just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean, about 3,100 km southwest of Honolulu - almost halfway between Hawaii and Australia. The island is composed of coral fragments and is surrounded by an active fringing reef. White breakers encircling the island indicate the position of the reef. Image courtesy of NASA.
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3 / 9
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Jarvis Island is an uninhabited 4.5 sq km (1.75 sq mi) coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean. Unlike most coral atolls, the central lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry. Note the submerged reef beyond the eastern shore of the island (top). Image courtesy of NASA.
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4 / 9
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Jarvis Island is an uninhabited 4.5 sq km (1.75 sq mi) coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean. Unlike most coral atolls, the central lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry; its deep guano deposits were mined for about 20 years during the 19th century. Image courtesy of NASA.
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5 / 9
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Satellite photo of Johnston Atoll, about 1,390 km (860 mi) west of Hawaii. Four islands compose the total land mass of 2.6 sq km. Johnston and Sand islands are both enlarged natural features, while Akau and Hikina are two artificial islands formed by coral dredging. Johnston Island, by far the largest, somewhat resembles the flattop of an aircraft carrier and contains an airstrip. Photo courtesy of NASA.
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6 / 9
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Astronaut photo of Kingman Reef, a largely submerged, uninhabited triangular structure in the North Pacific Ocean, roughly halfway between the Hawaiian Islands and American Samoa. The reef lagoon is 82 m (270 ft) deep at the western part and the total enclosed area is about 76 sq km (29 sq mi). The east-west and northwest-southeast trending small strips of dry land are composed of coral rubble and giant clamshells. The highest point on the reef is less than 1.5 m (5 ft) above sea level, which is awash most of the time, making Kingman Reef a maritime hazard. Image courtesy of NASA.
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7 / 9
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Midway Atoll is a 6.2 sq km (2.4 sq mi) atoll in the North Pacific Ocean. As its name suggests, Midway is roughly equidistant between North America and Asia, and lies almost halfway around the world from Greenwich, England. It is near the northwestern end of the Hawaiian archipelago, about one-third of the way from Honolulu, Hawaii to Tokyo, Japan. Photo courtesy of NASA.
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8 / 9
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Palmyra Atoll is an unoccupied equatorial Northern Pacific atoll of some 12 sq km (4.6 sq mi) administered by the US Government. It is located almost due south of the Hawaiian Islands, roughly halfway between Hawaii and American Samoa. The atoll consists of an extensive reef, two shallow lagoons, and some 50 sand and reef-rock islets and bars covered with vegetation. The variable temporary population of 4 to 20 "non-occupants" consists of staff and scientists employed by various departments of the US Government and The Nature Conservancy, as well as a rotating mix of Palmyra Atoll Research Consortium scholars pursuing research. Photo courtesy of NASA.
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Palmyra Atoll is an unoccupied equatorial Northern Pacific atoll of some 12 sq km (4.6 sq mi) administered by the US Government. It is located almost due south of the Hawaiian Islands, roughly halfway between Hawaii and American Samoa. The atoll consists of an extensive reef, two shallow lagoons, and some 50 sand and reef-rock islets and bars covered with vegetation. Photo courtesy of NASA/USGS.
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- Introduction :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Background: This entry usually highlights major historic events and current issues and may include a statement about one or two key future trends.

  All of the following US Pacific island territories except Midway Atoll constitute the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) Complex and as such are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior. Midway Atoll NWR has been included in a Refuge Complex with the Hawaiian Islands NWR and also designated as part of Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. These remote refuges are the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction. They sustain many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.

  Baker Island: The US took possession of the island in 1857. Its guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. The island was established as a NWR in 1974.;

  Howland Island: Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the uninhabited atoll was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British companies mined for guano deposits until about 1890. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island, similar to the effort on nearby Baker Island, but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. The famed American aviatrix Amelia EARHART disappeared while seeking out Howland Island as a refueling stop during her 1937 round-the-world flight; Earhart Light, a day beacon near the middle of the west coast, was named in her memory. The island was established as a NWR in 1974.;

  Jarvis Island: First discovered by the British in 1821, the uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858 but abandoned in 1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island in 1889 but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. It was abandoned in 1942 during World War II. The island was established as a NWR in 1974.;

  Johnston Atoll: Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll in 1934. Subsequently, the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and 1960s. Until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction, cleanup, and closure of the facility were completed by May 2005. The Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently discussing future management options; in the interim, Johnston Atoll and the three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force.;

  Kingman Reef: The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding the reef out to 12 nm were designated a NWR.;

  Midway Islands: The US took formal possession of the islands in 1867. The laying of the transpacific cable, which passed through the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for transpacific flights. The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are a NWR and are the site of the world's largest Laysan albatross colony.;

  Palmyra Atoll: The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not include Palmyra Atoll, which is now partly privately owned by the Nature Conservancy with the rest owned by the Federal government and managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. These organizations are managing the atoll as a wildlife refuge. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12-nm US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish and Wildlife Service and designated a NWR in January 2001.

- Geography :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Location: This entry identifies the country's regional location, neighboring countries, and adjacent bodies of water.

  Oceania

  Baker Island: atoll in the North Pacific Ocean 3,390 km southwest of Honolulu, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia;

  Howland Island: island in the North Pacific Ocean 3,360 km southwest of Honolulu, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia;

  Jarvis Island: island in the South Pacific Ocean 2,415 km south of Honolulu, about halfway between Hawaii and Cook Islands;

  Johnston Atoll: atoll in the North Pacific Ocean 1,330 km southwest of Honolulu, about one-third of the way from Hawaii to the Marshall Islands;

  Kingman Reef: reef in the North Pacific Ocean 1,720 km south of Honolulu, about halfway between Hawaii and American Samoa;

  Midway Islands: atoll in the North Pacific Ocean 2,335 km northwest of Honolulu near the end of the Hawaiian Archipelago, about one-third of the way from Honolulu to Tokyo;

  Palmyra Atoll: atoll in the North Pacific Ocean 1,780 km south of Honolulu, about halfway between Hawaii and American Samoa

  Geographic coordinates: This entry includes rounded latitude and longitude figures for the centroid or center point of a country expressed in degrees and minutes; it is based on the locations provided in the Geographic Names Server (GNS), maintained by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency on behalf of the US Board on Geographic Names.

  Baker Island: 0 13 N, 176 28 W;

  Howland Island: 0 48 N, 176 38 W;

  Jarvis Island: 0 23 S, 160 01 W;

  Johnston Atoll: 16 45 N, 169 31 W;

  Kingman Reef: 6 23 N, 162 25 W;

  Midway Islands: 28 12 N, 177 22 W;

  Palmyra Atoll: 5 53 N, 162 05 W

  Map references: This entry includes the name of the Factbook reference map on which a country may be found. Note that boundary representations on these maps are not necessarily authoritative. The entry on Geographic coordinates may be helpful in finding some smaller countries.
  Oceania
  Area: This entry includes three subfields. Total area is the sum of all land and water areas delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines. Land area is the aggregate of all surfaces delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines, excluding inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Water area is the sum of the surfaces of all inland water bodies, such as lakes, reservoirs, or rivers, as delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines.
  land: 6,959.41 sq km (emergent land - 22.41 sq km; submerged - 6,937 sq km)
  Baker Island: total - 129.1 sq km; emergent land - 2.1 sq km; submerged - 127 sq km
  Howland Island: total - 138.6 sq km; emergent land - 2.6 sq km; submerged - 136 sq km
  Jarvis Island: total - 152 sq km; emergent land - 5 sq km; submerged - 147 sq km
  Johnston Atoll: total - 276.6 sq km; emergent land - 2.6 sq km; submerged - 274 sq km
  Kingman Reef: total - 1,958.01 sq km; emergent land - 0.01 sq km; submerged - 1,958 sq km
  Midway Islands: total - 2,355.2 sq km; emergent land - 6.2 sq km; submerged - 2,349 sq km
  Palmyra Atoll: total - 1,949.9 sq km; emergent land - 3.9 sq km; submerged - 1,946 sq km
  Area - comparative: This entry provides an area comparison based on total area equivalents. Most entities are compared with the entire US or one of the 50 states based on area measurements (1990 revised) provided by the US Bureau of the Census. The smaller entities are compared with Washington, DC (178 sq km, 69 sq mi) or The Mall in Washington, DC (0.59 sq km, 0.23 sq mi, 146 acres).

  Baker Island: about 2.5 times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC;

  Howland Island: about three times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC;

  Jarvis Island: about eight times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC;

  Johnston Atoll: about 4.5 times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC;

  Kingman Reef: a little more than 1.5 times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC;

  Midway Islands: about nine times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC;

  Palmyra Atoll: about 20 times the size of the National Mall in Washington, DC

  Land boundaries: This entry contains the total length of all land boundaries and the individual lengths for each of the contiguous border countries. When available, official lengths published by national statistical agencies are used. Because surveying methods may differ, country border lengths reported by contiguous countries may differ.
  0 km
  Coastline: This entry gives the total length of the boundary between the land area (including islands) and the sea.
  Baker Island: 4.8 km
  Howland Island: 6.4 km
  Jarvis Island: 8 km
  Johnston Atoll: 34 km
  Kingman Reef: 3 km
  Midway Islands: 15 km
  Palmyra Atoll: 14.5 km
  Maritime claims: This entry includes the following claims, the definitions of which are excerpted from the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which alone contains the full and definitive descriptions: territorial sea - the sovereignty of a coastal state extends beyond its land territory and internal waters to an adjacent belt of sea, described as the territorial sea in the UNCLOS (Part II); this sovereignty extends to the air space over the territorial sea as well as its . . . more
  territorial sea: 12 nm
  exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
  Climate: This entry includes a brief description of typical weather regimes throughout the year.

  Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands: equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun;

  Johnston Atoll and Kingman Reef: tropical, but generally dry; consistent northeast trade winds with little seasonal temperature variation;

  Midway Islands: subtropical with cool, moist winters (December to February) and warm, dry summers (May to October); moderated by prevailing easterly winds; most of the 107 cm of annual rainfall occurs during the winter;

  Palmyra Atoll: equatorial, hot; located within the low pressure area of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where the northeast and southeast trade winds meet, it is extremely wet with between 400-500 cm of rainfall each year

  Terrain: This entry contains a brief description of the topography.
  low and nearly flat sandy coral islands with narrow fringing reefs that have developed at the top of submerged volcanic mountains, which in most cases rise steeply from the ocean floor
  Elevation: This entry includes both the mean elevation and the elevation extremes.
  0 m lowest point: Pacific Ocean
  8 highest point: Baker Island, unnamed location - 3 Howland Island, unnamed location - 7 Jarvis Island, unnamed location - 10 Johnston Atoll, Sand Island - 2 Kingman Reef, unnamed location - less than 13 Midway Islands, unnamed location - 3 Palmyra Atoll, unnamed location -
  Natural resources: This entry lists a country's mineral, petroleum, hydropower, and other resources of commercial importance, such as rare earth elements (REEs). In general, products appear only if they make a significant contribution to the economy, or are likely to do so in the future.
  terrestrial and aquatic wildlife
  Land use: This entry contains the percentage shares of total land area for three different types of land use: agricultural land, forest, and other; agricultural land is further divided into arable land - land cultivated for crops like wheat, maize, and rice that are replanted after each harvest, permanent crops - land cultivated for crops like citrus, coffee, and rubber that are not replanted after each harvest, and includes land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees, nut trees, and vines, and permane . . . more
  agricultural land: 0% (2011 est.)
  arable land: 0% (2011 est.) / permanent crops: 0% (2011 est.) / permanent pasture: 0% (2011 est.)
  forest: 0% (2011 est.)
  other: 100% (2011 est.)
  Natural hazards: This entry lists potential natural disasters. For countries where volcanic activity is common, a volcanism subfield highlights historically active volcanoes.

  Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses a maritime hazard;

  Kingman Reef: wet or awash most of the time, maximum elevation of less than 2 m makes Kingman Reef a maritime hazard;

  Midway Islands, Johnston, and Palmyra Atolls: NA

  Environment - current issues: This entry lists the most pressing and important environmental problems. The following terms and abbreviations are used throughout the entry: Acidification - the lowering of soil and water pH due to acid precipitation and deposition usually through precipitation; this process disrupts ecosystem nutrient flows and may kill freshwater fish and plants dependent on more neutral or alkaline conditions (see acid rain). Acid rain - characterized as containing harmful levels of sulfur dioxi . . . more

  Baker Island: no natural freshwater resources; feral cats, introduced in 1937 during a short-lived colonization effort, ravaged the avian population and were eradicated in 1965
  Howland Island: no natural freshwater resources; the island habitat has suffered from invasive exotic species; black rats, introduced in 1854, were eradicated by feral cats within a year of their introduction in 1937; the cats preyed on the bird population and were eliminated by 1985
  Jarvis Island: no natural freshwater resources; feral cats, introduced in the 1930s during a short-lived colonization venture, were not completely removed until 1990
  Johnston Atoll: no natural freshwater resources; the seven decades under US military administration (1934-2004) left the atoll environmentally degraded and required large-scale remediation efforts; a swarm of Anoplolepis (crazy) ants invaded the island in 2010 damaging native wildlife; eradication has been largely, but not completely, successful
  Midway Islands: many exotic species introduced, 75% of the roughly 200 plant species on the island are non-native; plastic pollution harms wildlife, via entanglement, ingestion, and toxic contamination

  Kingman Reef: none
  Palmyra Atoll: black rats, believed to have been introduced to the atoll during the US military occupation of the 1940s, severely degraded the ecosystem outcompeting native species (seabirds, crabs); following a successful rat removal project in 2011, native flora and fauna have begun to recover

  Geography - note: This entry includes miscellaneous geographic information of significance not included elsewhere.

  Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands: scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife; closed to the public;

  Johnston Atoll: Johnston Island and Sand Island are natural islands, which have been expanded by coral dredging; North Island (Akau) and East Island (Hikina) are manmade islands formed from coral dredging; the egg-shaped reef is 34 km in circumference; closed to the public;

  Kingman Reef: barren coral atoll with deep interior lagoon; closed to the public;

  Midway Islands: a coral atoll managed as a National Wildlife Refuge and open to the public for wildlife-related recreation in the form of wildlife observation and photography;

  Palmyra Atoll: the high rainfall and resulting lush vegetation make the environment of this atoll unique among the US Pacific Island territories; supports a large undisturbed stand of Pisonia beach forest

- People and Society :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Population: This entry gives an estimate from the US Bureau of the Census based on statistics from population censuses, vital statistics registration systems, or sample surveys pertaining to the recent past and on assumptions about future trends. The total population presents one overall measure of the potential impact of the country on the world and within its region. Note: Starting with the 1993 Factbook, demographic estimates for some countries (mostly African) have explicitly taken into account t . . . more
  no indigenous inhabitants

  note: public entry is only by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service and generally restricted to scientists and educators; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service

  Jarvis Island: Millersville settlement on western side of island occasionally used as a weather station from 1935 until World War II, when it was abandoned; reoccupied in 1957 during the International Geophysical Year by scientists who left in 1958; currently unoccupied

  Johnston Atoll: in previous years, an average of 1,100 US military and civilian contractor personnel were present; as of May 2005, all US Government personnel had left the island

  Midway Islands: approximately 40 people make up the staff of US Fish and Wildlife Service and their services contractor living at the atoll

  Palmyra Atoll: four to 20 Nature Conservancy, US Fish and Wildlife staff, and researchers

- Government :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Country name: This entry includes all forms of the country's name approved by the US Board on Geographic Names (Italy is used as an example): conventional long form (Italian Republic), conventional short form (Italy), local long form (Repubblica Italiana), local short form (Italia), former (Kingdom of Italy), as well as the abbreviation. Also see the Terminology note.
  conventional long form: none
  conventional short form: Baker Island
  etymology: self-descriptive name specifying the territories' affiliation and location
  Howland Island Jarvis Island Johnston Atoll Kingman Reef Midway Islands Palmyra Atoll
  Dependency status: This entry describes the formal relationship between a particular nonindependent entity and an independent state.
  unincorporated unorganized territories of the US; administered from Washington, DC, by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System

  note: incorporated unorganized territory of the US; partly privately owned and partly federally owned; administered from Washington, DC, by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior; the Office of Insular Affairs of the US Department of the Interior continues to administer nine excluded areas comprising certain tidal and submerged lands within the 12 nm territorial sea or within the lagoon

  Legal system: This entry provides the description of a country's legal system. A statement on judicial review of legislative acts is also included for a number of countries. The legal systems of nearly all countries are generally modeled upon elements of five main types: civil law (including French law, the Napoleonic Code, Roman law, Roman-Dutch law, and Spanish law); common law (including United State law); customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law (including Islamic law). An addition . . . more
  the laws of the US, where applicable, apply
  Diplomatic representation from the US: This entry includes the chief of mission, embassy address, mailing address, telephone number, FAX number, branch office locations, consulate general locations, and consulate locations.
  none (territories of the US)
  Flag description: This entry provides a written flag description produced from actual flags or the best information available at the time the entry was written. The flags of independent states are used by their dependencies unless there is an officially recognized local flag. Some disputed and other areas do not have flags.
  the flag of the US is used
- Economy :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Economy - overview: This entry briefly describes the type of economy, including the degree of market orientation, the level of economic development, the most important natural resources, and the unique areas of specialization. It also characterizes major economic events and policy changes in the most recent 12 months and may include a statement about one or two key future macroeconomic trends.
  no economic activity
- Transportation :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Airports: This entry gives the total number of airports or airfields recognizable from the air. The runway(s) may be paved (concrete or asphalt surfaces) or unpaved (grass, earth, sand, or gravel surfaces) and may include closed or abandoned installations. Airports or airfields that are no longer recognizable (overgrown, no facilities, etc.) are not included. Note that not all airports have accommodations for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control.
  Baker Island: one abandoned World War II runway of 1,665 m covered with vegetation and unusable (2013)
  Howland Island: airstrip constructed in 1937 for scheduled refueling stop on the round-the-world flight of Amelia EARHART and Fred NOONAN; the aviators left Lae, New Guinea, for Howland Island but were never seen again; the airstrip is no longer serviceable (2013)
  Johnston Atoll: one closed and not maintained (2013)
  Kingman Reef: lagoon was used as a halfway station between Hawaii and American Samoa by Pan American Airways for flying boats in 1937 and 1938 (2013)
  Midway Islands: 3 - one operational (2,377 m paved); no fuel for sale except emergencies (2013)
  Palmyra Atoll: 1 - 1,846 m unpaved runway; privately owned (2013)
  Airports - with paved runways: This entry gives the total number of airports with paved runways (concrete or asphalt surfaces) by length. For airports with more than one runway, only the longest runway is included according to the following five groups - (1) over 3,047 m (over 10,000 ft), (2) 2,438 to 3,047 m (8,000 to 10,000 ft), (3) 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft), (4) 914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft), and (5) under 914 m (under 3,000 ft). Only airports with usable runways are included in this listing. Not all . . . more
  2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 - Johnston Atoll; (2016)
  note - abandoned but usable
  Airports - with unpaved runways: This entry gives the total number of airports with unpaved runways (grass, dirt, sand, or gravel surfaces) by length. For airports with more than one runway, only the longest runway is included according to the following five groups - (1) over 3,047 m (over 10,000 ft), (2) 2,438 to 3,047 m (8,000 to 10,000 ft), (3) 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft), (4) 914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft), and (5) under 914 m (under 3,000 ft). Only airports with usable runways are included in this listin . . . more
  1 - Palmyra Atoll (2016)
  Ports and terminals: This entry lists major ports and terminals primarily on the basis of the amount of cargo tonnage shipped through the facilities on an annual basis. In some instances, the number of containers handled or ship visits were also considered. Most ports service multiple classes of vessels including bulk carriers (dry and liquid), break bulk cargoes (goods loaded individually in bags, boxes, crates, or drums; sometimes palletized), containers, roll-on/roll-off, and passenger ships. The listing le . . . more
  major seaport(s): Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands, and Kingman Reef
  Baker, Howland, and Jarvis Islands, and Kingman Reef: none; offshore anchorage only
  Johnston Atoll: Johnston Island
  Midway Islands: Sand Island
  Palmyra Atoll: West Lagoon
- Military and Security :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Military - note: This entry includes miscellaneous military information of significance not included elsewhere.
  defense is the responsibility of the US
- Transnational Issues :: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
- Disputes - international: This entry includes a wide variety of situations that range from traditional bilateral boundary disputes to unilateral claims of one sort or another. Information regarding disputes over international terrestrial and maritime boundaries has been reviewed by the US Department of State. References to other situations involving borders or frontiers may also be included, such as resource disputes, geopolitical questions, or irredentist issues; however, inclusion does not necessarily constitute . . . more
  none

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